Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

The history of human beings is much older than the history of kingdoms and empires. Before cities, rulers, books, and written records, humans lived as hunter-gatherers . They depended on nature for food, shelter, and survival. The period before writing was invented is called prehistory . Since there were no written records, we learn about this period mainly through archaeological evidence such as stone tools, bones, fossils, pottery, cave paintings, seals, and ancient settlements . One important idea of this chapter is that civilisation did not begin suddenly . It developed slowly over thousands of years through changes in tools, food habits, settlements, farming, trade, writing, and social organisation.

The invention of writing was one of the most important achievements of human history. It divided human history into two broad phases: Before Writing Before writing, human history is studied through material remains . These include tools, weapons, bones, fossils, cave paintings, pottery, beads, and buildings . More than 99% of human history belongs to the period before writing. During this period, it is difficult to know the exact thoughts, beliefs, names, and events of people because they did not leave written records. Time measurement in this period is also usually approximate .

After writing was invented, people began recording events, laws, trade, stories, religious ideas, and administrative details. This makes it easier for historians to understand their lives. Written records help us know about names of rulers, wars, laws, society, culture, religion, and economy . The Sumerian cuneiform script and Egyptian hieroglyphic script have been deciphered. However, the Harappan script , also called Sindhu lipi , has not yet been deciphered. Because of this, our understanding of the Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation is still incomplete in many ways.

We study early human history because it helps us understand how humans became what they are today . It explains two important processes: Biological Evolution Biological evolution means the gradual physical and genetic changes through which early ancestors evolved into modern humans. Our modern human species is called Homo sapiens . Cultural Evolution Cultural evolution means the way humans changed their lifestyle, tools, technology, food habits, and social life according to climate and environment. Humans slowly moved from hunting and gathering to farming and food production . This change created surplus food , which later helped in the rise of villages, towns, trade, administration, and civilisations.

The earliest human ancestors evolved in Africa . Around 2 million years ago , some early humans began moving out of Africa into Asia and Europe. Important human ancestors include: Homo habilis Homo habilis means “handy man”. They lived mainly in Africa, especially around Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Kenya. They made simple stone tools. Homo erectus Homo erectus means “upright man”. They were among the first human ancestors to move out of Africa. They used tools like handaxes and cleavers .

Homo neanderthalensis lived in Europe and Southwest Asia. They made more advanced flake tools and survived till about 40,000 years ago . Homo sapiens Homo sapiens are modern humans. They evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and later spread across the world. They developed more complex tools, symbolic communication, art, ornaments, and advanced technology. A very important point is that early humans became different from animals because they had the ability to make tools consciously and use them for specific purposes .

Since early humans did not leave written records, archaeologists study their lives through material remains . Archaeologists find and study: Stone tools , animal bones , human fossils , cave paintings , shells , beads , pottery , settlements , and burial remains . They also try to recreate ancient tools and use them experimentally. This helps them understand how early humans made and used tools. A fossil is the preserved remains, impression, or trace of ancient plants, animals, or humans. Fossils help us understand human evolution.

Early human history is divided into different periods based on tools, technology, lifestyle, and materials used . Main periods are: Palaeolithic Period – Old Stone Age Mesolithic Period – Middle Stone Age Neolithic Period – New Stone Age Chalcolithic Period – Copper and Stone Age Bronze Age – Use of bronze and growth of civilisations Iron Age – Use of iron tools and weapons This classification shows how human society gradually progressed from simple stone tools to metal tools, farming, settlements, trade, and cities.

The Palaeolithic Period is also called the Old Stone Age . The word palaeo means old and lithic means stone. During this period, humans were mainly hunter-gatherers . They hunted animals, collected fruits, roots, tubers, seeds, and other natural food items. In the Indian subcontinent, some very old human sites are: Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu – about 1.5 to 1.7 million years old Isampur in Karnataka – about 1.2 million years old

These tools were used to cut meat, dig tubers, scrape animal skins, break bones, and make hunting easier . Later Palaeolithic humans developed bows and arrows , blade tools , microblades , beads , and cave paintings . They also used pigments to decorate their bodies and cave walls. This shows that humans were not only surviving but also developing art, imagination, symbolic communication, and social expression .

The Mesolithic Period began around 12,000 years ago , when the Earth’s climate became warmer. As the climate changed, forests and grasslands expanded. Humans got access to more food resources such as small animals, fish, wild grains, and aquatic food . The most important tools of this period were microliths . Microliths were tiny stone tools. They were often fixed into wooden or bone handles and used for hunting, fishing, and gathering food. During this period, people often lived near rivers, lakes, caves, and rock shelters .

The Mesolithic period was a transition between hunting-gathering and farming .

The Neolithic Period is also called the New Stone Age . The term Neolithic Revolution refers to the major change from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled life . It is called a revolution because it completely changed human life.

Grow crops Domesticate animals Live in permanent villages Make polished stone tools Make pottery Store food Develop weaving and craft activities The domestication of plants and animals was the most important feature of the Neolithic Revolution. Earlier hunter-gatherers made tools mainly to obtain food. But Neolithic farmers made tools for food production and processing . This period laid the foundation for village life , which later led to urban civilisation .

The Neolithic way of life developed at different times in different parts of India. The oldest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent is Mehrgarh , located on the Bolan River in present-day Pakistan. It dates back to about 7000 BCE . People at Mehrgarh: Built sun-dried brick houses Made granaries for storing food Buried their dead in graves Made ornaments from lapis lazuli, carnelian, shells, and semi-precious stones Cultivated wheat and barley Reared sheep, goats, and zebu cattle

By around 2500 BCE , many parts of the Indian subcontinent had Neolithic agricultural communities. They practised cattle herding, sheep and goat rearing, cereal cultivation, millet cultivation, and pulse cultivation .

The Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation is also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation . It developed from earlier Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlements. The process began around Mehrgarh and spread into the Indus Valley and Ghaggar- Sarasvatī basin . The introduction of copper tools increased agricultural productivity. This helped communities become more prosperous. Important stages of Harappan development include: Early Harappan Phase Mature Harappan Phase Late Harappan Phase By around 2600 BCE , large urban centres of the Harappan civilisation had emerged.

Well-planned cities Drainage systems Water management Standard weights and measures Seals and script Pottery Craft production Bead-making Copper work Shell work Trade Sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira , Rakhigarhi , Kalibangan, Lothal, Bhirrana , Kunal, and Datrana were important.

The Harappans also used standard weights , which helped in trade and exchange. Their trade contacts extended to Mesopotamia , where the Harappan region was probably known as Meluhha .

Several early civilisations developed independently in fertile river valleys. The four major early civilisations were: Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation – along the Sindhu and Sarasvatī rivers Mesopotamian Civilisation – along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers Egyptian Civilisation – along the Nile River Chinese Civilisation – along the Huang He and Yangtze rivers Rivers were important because they provided water, fertile soil, transport, fish, irrigation, and support for agriculture . However, rivers also created challenges like floods, destruction of crops, water control problems, and need for collective management .

Mesopotamia means “land between two rivers”. It was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in West Asia. In modern terms, this region mainly includes Iraq and Kuwait , with parts of Turkey and southwestern Iran. The fertile region around Mesopotamia is called the Fertile Crescent because of its high agricultural potential. Farming began in this region very early, and copper tools arrived around 4500 BCE . Copper improved farming, craft production, and trade.

Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian Babylonian Mesopotamian cities developed into city-states . A city-state was a city with its own government and surrounding territory.

The Sumerians were the earliest city-based civilisation in Mesopotamia. They developed cities like Ur, Uruk , Eridu , Lagash, and Nippur . Their important achievements were: Canals and dams for irrigation Mud-brick and burnt-brick buildings Ziggurats Cuneiform writing Wheeled carts Sailboats Mathematics based on the number 60 A ziggurat was a huge stepped temple. It was the religious, economic, and administrative centre of the city. Sumerians believed in many gods. Temples controlled agriculture, trade, storage, and transport of goods. Society had clear social hierarchy. Priests, priestesses, rulers, merchants, craftspeople, farmers, and labourers had different roles.

The Sumerians developed one of the earliest writing systems around 3300 BCE . It was called cuneiform . Cuneiform was written by pressing a wedge-shaped stylus into soft clay tablets. Cuneiform tablets recorded: Trade accounts Agricultural records Craft activities Religious hymns Myths and epics Law codes Educational texts Scribes had high status because they knew how to write and maintain records. A major Sumerian contribution was their number system based on 60 . This gave us the idea of 60 seconds in a minute , 60 minutes in an hour , and 360 degrees in a circle .

The Akkadians rose to power around 2334 BCE . Their main centre was the city of Akkad . They spoke Akkadian , but used the cuneiform script like the Sumerians. The Akkadians created one of the world’s first dynastic empires . One important Akkadian king was Sargon . Akkadian records mention trade with Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha . Meluhha is generally identified with the Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation . Dilmun refers to present-day Bahrain . Magan refers to the Oman peninsula . The Harappans probably traded semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and copper with Mesopotamia.

The Assyrians became powerful after the decline of the Akkadians around 2154 BCE . Their main centre was Assur in northern Mesopotamia. They expanded their influence across Mesopotamia and nearby regions. The Assyrians are remembered for their strong political and military power.

The Babylonians rose in central Mesopotamia from around 1900 BCE . Their most famous ruler was Hammurabi , who came to power in 1792 BCE . Hammurabi expanded Babylon into a large empire. His most important contribution was the Code of Hammurabi . It was a collection of rules and laws for civil and social conduct. The Code of Hammurabi became a model for many later legal systems. Babylonia declined because of repeated attacks, environmental degradation, pressure on farmland, and political and economic problems.

The Egyptian Civilisation developed along the Nile River . The Nile was central to Egyptian life. Every year, it flooded and deposited rich black soil called kemet , which was excellent for agriculture. Egyptians called their land Kemet , meaning “the black land”. Egyptians developed irrigation by digging ditches and storing water in reservoirs . They also developed a calendar by observing Nile floods and the rising of Sirius , the Dog Star. The Egyptian year had 365 days : 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 extra days.

Egyptian history is known from papyrus records , monuments, tombs, and inscriptions. Papyrus was an early form of paper made from the papyrus plant. Egyptian writing was deciphered with the help of the Rosetta Stone . It contained the same text in different scripts, including Greek. Since Greek could be read, scholars used it to understand Egyptian writing. The Egyptian script was deciphered by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 . Egyptians believed in life after death. They believed that a person had a spiritual double called ka . To preserve the body after death, they practised mummification .

Egyptian rulers were called Pharaohs . They were powerful kings and were often considered divine. After death, pharaohs were buried in special tombs. Over time, these tombs developed into pyramids .

Egyptian society had a hierarchy: At the top was the Pharaoh . Below him were government officials, nobles, and priests . Then came free landholders, artisans, and merchants . At the bottom were serfs and slaves . Egyptians also enjoyed leisure activities such as swimming, canoeing, music, dancing, board games, and festivals . Egyptian women had comparatively more rights than many women in later Greek and Roman societies. They could own property and run businesses .

The Chinese Civilisation developed along the Huang He or Yellow River and the Yangtze River . Early Chinese Neolithic cultures began around 7000 BCE . Bronze metallurgy became important around 2000 BCE . By around 1600 BCE , urban centres began to develop in China. Important Chinese dynasties were: Shang Dynasty – 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE Zhou Dynasty – 1046 BCE to 256 BCE Qin Dynasty – 221 BCE to 206 BCE Han Dynasty – 206 BCE to 220 CE The name China probably comes from the Qin dynasty. The Qin dynasty is known for unifying China.

China has many historical records because official historians recorded events. The earliest sources of Chinese history include oracle bones . These were animal bones or tortoise shells with symbols carved on them. Oracle bones were heated until they cracked. The cracks were interpreted to predict the future. Oracle bones tell us about the hopes, fears, beliefs, questions, and concerns of early Chinese people. Chinese writing was logographic , meaning characters represented words or meaningful units rather than individual sounds.

Chinese artisans were skilled in making objects from jade, bronze, and marble . Jade objects were used as prestige and ritual objects. Bronze was used for weapons, tools, and ritual vessels .

Silk was known in China from the Neolithic period. During the Han dynasty , silk became a major trade item. The route used for silk trade came to be called the Silk Route . By around 1500 BCE , Chinese society had become highly stratified. At the top were rulers, nobles, and aristocrats. Farmers and labourers formed the lower levels. China also made important contributions such as paper currency and civil services through public examination .

Prehistory – The period before writing was invented. Archaeology – Study of the past through material remains. Fossil – Preserved remains or traces of ancient life. Hominins – Modern humans and early human-like ancestors. Homo sapiens – Modern humans. Palaeolithic – Old Stone Age. Mesolithic – Middle Stone Age. Microliths – Tiny stone tools. Neolithic Revolution – Shift from hunting-gathering to farming and settled life. Chalcolithic – Copper-Stone Age. Bronze Age – Period marked by use of bronze and rise of early civilisations. City-state – A city with its own government and surrounding territory. Ziggurat – Stepped temple of Sumerian cities. Cuneiform – Sumerian writing system made with wedge-shaped marks. Papyrus – Ancient Egyptian writing material made from the papyrus plant. Mummification – Preserving a dead body for the afterlife. Oracle bones – Bones or shells used in early China for prediction and writing.

Chapter 4 explains how humans lived before the beginning of civilisation and how they gradually developed tools, farming, settlements, writing, trade, and social organisation. Early humans evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world. In the Palaeolithic Period , they lived as hunter-gatherers and used stone tools like handaxes and cleavers. In the Mesolithic Period , they used tiny tools called microliths and lived near rivers, lakes, and rock shelters. The Neolithic Revolution brought a major change when humans began farming, domesticating animals, making pottery, and living in villages. In the Indian subcontinent, Mehrgarh was the earliest Neolithic agricultural village. These developments later contributed to the rise of the Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation , known for planned cities, drainage, water management, seals, script, crafts, weights, and trade. The chapter also discusses other Bronze Age civilisations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China . Mesopotamia developed city-states, ziggurats, cuneiform writing, and legal codes. Egypt flourished along the Nile and became famous for pharaohs, pyramids, papyrus, mummification, and calendars. China developed along the Huang He and Yangtze rivers and became known for oracle bones, bronze objects, jade crafts, silk, dynasties, the Great Wall, and civil services. The main message of the chapter is that civilisation was the result of a long journey from simple tools and hunting-gathering to farming, cities, writing, trade, administration, and culture.

Before writing was invented, humans communicated through spoken sounds, gestures, signs, symbols, body movements, cave paintings, engravings, and symbolic objects . Cave paintings and rock art show that early humans could express ideas, events, animals, hunting scenes, and social life through pictures. They also used pigments , decorated their bodies, made beads of stone, bone, and shell , and engraved symbols on bones and shells. This shows that humans had developed symbolic communication even before proper writing began.

Archaeology helps us understand the past by studying the material remains left behind by people. Since early humans did not leave written records, archaeologists study tools, bones, fossils, pottery, cave paintings, beads, houses, seals, burial remains, and ancient settlements . These remains help us understand how early humans lived, what food they ate, what tools they used, how they hunted, how they made shelters, and how their society changed over time. Archaeologists also recreate and use similar tools to understand how ancient people made and used them.

Early civilisations interacted mainly through trade, travel, exchange of goods, and cultural contact . For example, the Harappan civilisation had contacts with Mesopotamia . Mesopotamian records mention trade with Meluhha , which is generally identified with the Sindhu– Sarasvatī or Harappan Civilisation . The Harappans traded items such as semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and probably copper . Trade routes connected regions like Meluhha , Dilmun, and Magan , showing that ancient civilisations were not isolated but connected through exchange networks.

The language behind the Harappan script is also uncertain. Scholars are not fully sure whether it was related to Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Munda, or some other language family . Because of this, different scholars have suggested different readings, but none has been universally accepted. Efforts made to decipher the Harappan script include: Researchers have compared Harappan signs with other ancient scripts. They have studied the order and repetition of signs. They have used computer analysis and statistical methods . They have compared symbols found on seals, pottery, and other objects. They are also looking for a possible bilingual inscription that may help decode the script. So, the Harappan script remains one of the biggest unsolved questions of ancient Indian history.

The objects used included stone tools, pottery, storage containers, agricultural tools, and objects related to animal rearing and farming . Yes, many of these are still used today in modified forms. Farmers still use domesticated animals , grow crops, live in settled villages, store grains, and use pottery or similar storage vessels in some rural areas. Agriculture, livestock rearing, and village life continue to be important even today.

But the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. So, we mainly depend on archaeological remains such as seals, pottery, buildings, tools, weights, and city planning. Because of this, we still do not clearly know the Harappan language, names of rulers, exact religious beliefs, laws, or political system. Therefore, a deciphered script makes our knowledge clearer, deeper, and more accurate , while an undeciphered script leaves many questions unanswered.

3. The Descent of Inanna This is a Sumerian story about the goddess Inanna’s journey to the underworld. 4. The Story of Sinuhe This is an ancient Egyptian story about a man who leaves Egypt and later returns. 5. The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor This is an Egyptian adventure story about a sailor who survives after a shipwreck. These stories show that early civilisations had rich imagination, moral ideas, religious beliefs, and storytelling traditions.

This papyrus tells us that early Egyptians strongly believed in life after death, moral judgement, truthfulness, and divine justice . It also shows why they gave so much importance to mummification, burial rituals, and preserving the body for the afterlife.

Below the Pharaoh were government officials, nobles, and priests . Officials helped in administration, tax collection, record keeping, and managing public works. Priests performed rituals in temples and looked after religious activities. Nobles controlled land and held important positions. Below them were free landholders, artisans, and merchants . Landholders worked on or managed farms. Artisans made objects like pottery, jewellery, tools, cloth, and furniture. Merchants bought and sold goods within Egypt and with other regions. At the bottom were serfs and slaves . They did hard physical work such as farming, carrying loads, building structures, serving households, and working for temples or nobles. This pyramid shows that Egyptian society was highly organised but unequal , with different rights, duties, and occupations for different groups.

a. Which social classes used these items? Simple items like ordinary sandals and basic pottery may have been used by common people, farmers, artisans, and workers. More decorated or finely made items were probably used by rich people, nobles, priests, officials, merchants, and members of the royal family .

b. What clues help us guess this? The clues are the materials, designs, finishing, and decoration . Simple objects were likely used in daily life by common people. But objects with fine designs, better material, artistic decoration, and careful craftsmanship were probably used by higher social classes. So, these images show that Egyptian fashion was connected not only with daily need but also with wealth, class, status, and artistic taste .

Examples: 1. 日 – Sun This character means sun or day . Its older form looked like a round sun with a mark inside. Over time, it became a square-shaped symbol. 2. 月 – Moon This character means moon or month . Its older shape looked like a crescent moon. The modern form is simpler but still reminds us of the moon’s shape. 3. 山 – Mountain This character means mountain . Its shape looks like three mountain peaks. 4. 口 – Mouth This character means mouth . It looks like an open mouth or opening. These examples show that early Chinese writing developed from picture-like symbols into a more organised writing system.

4. To protect trade routes It helped protect traders and caravans, especially in areas connected with long-distance trade. 5. To send signals and warnings Watchtowers on the wall were used to communicate warnings through fire, smoke, or other signals. 6. To show imperial power The wall also showed the strength, unity, and authority of Chinese rulers. For a model or presentation, students can show the wall, watchtowers, soldiers, mountains, trade routes, and nearby villages .

Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang came to India to visit Buddhist places, study Buddhist texts, and collect manuscripts. Many Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese. In this way, the Silk Route was not only a trade route but also a route for the exchange of religion, ideas, art, and culture .

All three civilisations had social hierarchy , rulers, priests or religious leaders, officials, farmers, artisans, traders, and labourers. Agriculture was the main occupation in all of them. Religion, festivals, crafts, trade, and administration were important parts of daily life. Differences In Egypt, the Pharaoh was extremely powerful and was connected with divine authority. Egypt is also famous for pyramids, mummification, and belief in afterlife . In Mesopotamia, temples called ziggurats were major centres of power and economy. In China, dynasties, bronze ritual vessels, jade objects, oracle bones, and later civil service examinations became important features. Thus, these societies were similar in organisation, but different in beliefs, rulers, architecture, and cultural practices.

On a map, mark the following:

Mark trade links between Sindhu– Sarasvatī civilisation and Mesopotamia . The Harappan region was probably known as Meluhha in Mesopotamian records. Also mark Dilmun near Bahrain and Magan near Oman, because these places acted as important trade contact points. Goods traded may have included semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and copper .

Presentation Topic: Mesopotamian Civilisation

Introduction: Mesopotamia means “land between two rivers”. It developed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in West Asia and was one of the earliest city-based civilisations.

Tools and technology: Mesopotamians used copper and bronze tools. These tools improved farming, craft production and trade. Better tools increased productivity and supported the growth of towns and cities.

Writing: The Sumerians developed cuneiform writing around 3300 BCE. It was written on clay tablets with a wedge-shaped stylus. Writing helped record trade, farming, laws, stories, hymns and administration.

Art and craft: Mesopotamians made pottery, textiles, metal objects, seals and decorated boxes. They also made objects showing scenes from daily life. These objects tell us about clothing, occupations, transport, trade and social life.

Architecture: The most famous Mesopotamian structure was the ziggurat, a stepped temple built in cities. It was a religious centre and was also connected with the economy, storage, administration and social life.

Conclusion: Mesopotamia gave the world city-states, writing, organised trade, a temple-centred economy, mathematics, law codes, wheeled carts and sailboats. These innovations influenced later civilisations and helped shape human history.